Lesson 15: The Classical Tradition

  1. Objectives
  2. What is the Classical Tradition?
    1. Greek and Latin in Sciences
  3. The Language(s) of Science
    1. Cultural Shifts
  4. Eurocentric Narratives
    1. Exclusion of Non-European Contributions
    2. Ethnosciences
  5. Vocabulary List
  6. Vocabulary Practice
  7. Reflection Questions

Objectives

  1. Learn about the Classical tradition and how it affects pre-modern sciences
  2. Understand the effect of Eurocentric narratives in modern sciences

What is the Classical Tradition?

The Classical Tradition broadly refers to the influence of the ancient Greek and Roman civilizations on various fields of knowledge, culture, and intellectual pursuits, which has continued to shape Western thought and learning for centuries. It includes the study of philosophy, literature, mathematics, art, architecture, and science, all of which were foundational to the development of modern society. The Classical Tradition encompasses the language, ideas, and systems of knowledge passed down from these ancient cultures, particularly their ideas about the natural world, human nature, and the universe.

In the context of the sciences, the Classical Tradition is especially important because it laid the groundwork for many scientific disciplines as we understand them today. Ancient Greek philosophers, mathematicians, and naturalists such as Aristotle, Euclid, Archimedes, and Ptolemy made formative contributions to the understanding of geometry, astronomy, physics, and biology. Their work formed the basis of scientific thought until the development of modern science in the Renaissance and beyond. Likewise, the Romans, though more focused on engineering and practical applications, contributed to the development of scientific techniques and methods.

The influence of the Classical Tradition extends far beyond the ancient world. During the Middle Ages, scholars in the Islamic world, and later in Renaissance Europe, preserved, studied, and expanded upon Greek and Roman knowledge. As such, Greek and Latin became the international languages of learning, science, and medicine, serving as the vehicles through which much of the ancient world’s knowledge was passed down to later generations. Today, many modern scientific terms, especially in fields like biology, chemistry, and medicine, are derived from Greek and Latin roots. (That’s also one of the reasons this class exists!)

Through the centuries, the Classical Tradition has shaped not only scientific thought but also Western cultural identity, influencing everything from art and literature to political theory and ethics. The pursuit of knowledge and rational inquiry that began with the Greeks and Romans is at the core of modern scientific methods, demonstrating the enduring legacy of these ancient cultures. In a sense, the Classical Tradition is not merely a historical period, but an ongoing intellectual legacy that continues to inform how we approach the natural world.

Greek and Latin in Sciences

As we’ve seen so far this quarter, Greek and Latin have been fundamental to the development and communication of scientific knowledge throughout history. These languages were adopted by scholars in the Western world for centuries, becoming the lingua franca of academia, especially during the Middle Ages and the Renaissance. Even today, many scientific terms and nomenclature are derived from these classical languages, as they continue to provide a universal framework for global scientific discourse.

Greek, in particular, is the language from which many of the foundational terms of scientific thought were derived, especially in fields like biology, chemistry, astronomy, and medicine (our four units). We’ve learned a lot of roots related to each field that are derived from Greek.

The Greek alphabet also contributed significantly to modern scientific notation. For example, the use of Greek letters like delta (Δ) for change, sigma (Σ) for summation, and pi (π) for the mathematical constant representing the ratio of a circle’s circumference to its diameter, all have their roots in ancient Greek standards and notation. Further, the use of Greek letters is commonplace for variables in mathematics and physics; and for Bayer designations of stars. The use of Greek in the sciences, particularly in technical writing and mathematical notation, remains pervasive today, maintaining its historical connection to ancient discoveries and systems of thought.

Latin, on the other hand, became the language of choice for formal writing in medieval Europe and was widely used throughout the Renaissance. It was the primary language for scientific texts, medical treatises, and theological writings. Latin’s grammatical structure and vocabulary allowed scholars to precisely define concepts and ideas. For example, scientific binomials, the two-part naming system established by Carl Linnaeus and used to identify species, are typically written in Latin or Latinized Greek (see Project 1 for examples). Latin also remains prominent in the nomenclature of the human anatomy (which we’ll see more of in Unit 4).

Both Greek and Latin provided a stable and universal medium for the exchange of scientific ideas across cultures. As the scientific revolution unfolded in the 16th and 17th centuries, scholars from different parts of Europe, often speaking different native languages, were able to communicate effectively through the shared use of Greek and Latin. This linguistic unity helped propel scientific collaboration and the dissemination of new knowledge. Even as national languages became more dominant in the 19th and 20th centuries, the legacy of Greek and Latin in scientific terminology continued, ensuring consistency and clarity in scientific communication worldwide.

In a similar way, Greek and Latin mythological figures also played prominent roles in the explanation and naming of natural phenomena. We’ve seen how living organisms, elements, planets, and constellations all relate back to mythological figures. Language is difficult to separate from culture, so when Greek and Latin went to the forefront of scientific communication, so too did the famous figures in Greek and Roman imagination.

The Language(s) of Science

The relationship between language and science is not just about terminology but also about the way knowledge is structured. Science relies on precision, clarity, and universality in its communication, and for much of the Western scientific tradition, Latin and Greek provided these attributes. As aforementioned, Latin had a much more precise vocabulary for scientific procedures and phenomena and therefore was used extensively for centuries as the standard language for scholarly work, particularly during the Middle Ages and Renaissance, and remained the preferred language for scientific texts well into the 18th and 19th centuries.

In the modern era, however, the language of science has undergone significant changes. Today, English has become a more dominant language of scientific research and publication. The rise of English in the scientific world has been largely due to the global political, economic, and technological dominance of English-speaking countries, particularly the United States and the United Kingdom, during the 20th century. As a result, most scientific journals, conferences, and research are now conducted in English, which has become the de facto international language for most disciplines. However, this shift has raised questions about accessibility, inclusivity, and the future of other scientific languages.

For example, if the expectation of modern scientists is to communicate in English, then what role do Greek and Latin still have in our terminology? It would be near-impossible to completely deconstruct systems of knowledge based on Greek and Latin (would you want to rename all the world’s organisms?) and replace them with English terms. Further, English is itself heavily indebted to Greek and Latin in everyday use. This paragraph alone contains about 20 words derived from both languages!

Cultural Shifts

The cultural shifts in the language(s) of science reflect broader societal changes in politics, economy, and technology. For centuries, Latin was the universal language of scholarly work across Europe, not just in the sciences. It was the language of the Church, academia, and intellectual discourse, and thus served as the common ground for scientists, philosophers, and theologians. The use of Latin also represented a continuity of knowledge from the ancient Greeks and Romans, whose intellectual achievements were highly regarded by European scholars during the Middle Ages and Renaissance.

However, the scientific revolution of the 16th and 17th centuries and the subsequent rise of national identity and political power began to shift the linguistic landscape. As scientific communities grew and new discoveries were made, scholars and scientists in various European countries began to publish their works in their own native languages, marking the beginning of the decline of Latin as the universal scientific language. For instance, in the 17th century, Isaac Newton published his work Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica in Latin, but later generations saw more and more scientific works being published in the vernacular languages of Europe, particularly English, French, and German. For example, Charles Darwin’s 1859 work On the Origin of Species was written in English, reflecting the growing prominence of English in scientific communication.

The Industrial Revolution and the technological innovations of the 19th century played a pivotal role in accelerating the shift toward a globalized scientific community. As trade, exploration, and intellectual exchange expanded across the globe, the need for a common language to facilitate communication became increasingly urgent. The spread of English as the dominant language of science was not merely a product of intellectual exchange, but also the result of colonialism, which established English as the language of administration, education, and scientific research in many parts of the world. The British Empire’s vast colonial reach, combined with the rise of the United States as a global scientific and economic powerhouse, positioned English at the center of scientific discourse. By the 20th century, the growing influence of English-speaking scientific journals, conferences, and institutions helped solidify the language’s dominance. This cultural shift paralleled the growing economic and military power of English-speaking countries, particularly after World War II, when the United States emerged as a superpower with unmatched global influence. The legacy of colonialism thus played a crucial role in establishing English as the lingua franca of modern science, reshaping both global communication and scientific knowledge.

In recent years, the trend toward the dominance of English has been reinforced by the rapid spread of digital technology and the internet, which has further globalized communication. The ability to access scientific papers, online courses, and research in English has made it the de facto global language for scientific work. However, this shift also poses challenges for non-English speakers, who may have less access to the global scientific community or face barriers in contributing to scientific discourse.

Eurocentric Narratives

The history of science, like many other fields of study, has traditionally been told from a Eurocentric perspective, often excluding or minimizing the contributions of non-European civilizations. This Eurocentric narrative has its roots in colonialism, imperialism, and the dominance of European powers over much of the world from the 15th century onward. As European explorers and scholars ventured into other parts of the world, they often regarded non-European cultures as inferior or less advanced, leading to the dismissal or neglect of the rich scientific and intellectual traditions found outside Europe.

Part of the perpetuation of a Eurocentric tradition comes at the cost of dissociating ancient place-names with their modern-day locations, particularly in Africa and the Middle East. For example, Babylonian ruins are found in modern-day Iraq; Carthage once stood in what is now modern-day Libya; and Alexandria is in northern Egypt.

Exclusion of Non-European Contributions

One of the key ways in which non-European contributions to science have been excluded is through the focus on European thinkers and their contributions as the pinnacle of intellectual achievement. Many of the foundational figures in the scientific revolution, such as Galileo, Newton, and Descartes, are celebrated as the “fathers” of modern science, while scholars from non-European regions who made significant contributions were either ignored or forgotten. For example, scholars from Islamic and Persian civilizations, who preserved and expanded upon ancient Greek and Roman knowledge during the Islamic Golden Age, were often excluded from the European historical narrative of science.

The decline of the Islamic Golden Age coincided with the rise of imperialism in Europe. As European empires grew, Islamic empires shrank. This led to the perception of Islamic powers (and by extension, their sciences) being relics of a bygone and backwater age. Contributions from Greek and Roman thinkers were exaggerated and sensationalized to paint the narrative of a longer, unbroken European tradition that was as strong as the empires that were rising during that time.

In the fields of astronomy, mathematics, and medicine, non-European societies made significant advances that were often overlooked by European scholars. We have seen several contributions from scholars and scientists in the pre-modern Islamic world, and how scientists like Jabir have preserved and expanded upon scientific methodologies and practices from the ancient Mediterranean. In ancient India, mathematicians developed the concept of zero and made significant contributions to algebra and geometry. Our current number system is based on the Hindu-Arabic numerals and place-values, rather than Roman numerals and additive systems. The ancient Maya people also recognized zero as a number and used a base-20 number system rather than our familiar base-10. They also developed several calendar systems. The Haab’ calendar is a 365-day solar calendar that closely resembles the modern Gregorian calendar. The Tzolk’in calendar is a 260-day ritual calendar used for ceremonies and religious observances. Both calendars were used in the Calendar Round, which was a system of interlocking circles that related both systems.

However, these advancements and achievements were often dismissed by European colonizers and conquerors who regarded their own scientific practices as superior and more advanced. The colonial mentality that shaped much of European science unfortunately led to the mass erasure of many indigenous knowledge systems. For example, African, Native American, and Pacific Islander cultures developed sophisticated systems of knowledge about agriculture, medicine, and ecology, yet these were often regarded as “primitive” or “superstitious” by European colonizers and slavers. Even today, many indigenous knowledge systems are not fully recognized in academic and scientific circles, despite their profound understanding of the natural world.

The exclusion of non-European contributions to science has led to a skewed and incomplete history of scientific development, one that fails to acknowledge the richness of global knowledge and the diverse ways in which different cultures have engaged with the natural world.

Ethnosciences

Ethnoscience is the study of the knowledge systems and practices of indigenous and non-Western cultures, including their understanding of the natural world. These knowledge systems, often passed down through oral traditions, encompass fields such as ethnobotany (the study of plants and their uses), ethnoastronomy (the study of how cultures understand celestial bodies), ethnomedicine (traditional medical practices), and ethnoecology (the study of human-environment interactions). Ethnosciences provide insight into how different cultures have developed sophisticated systems of knowledge that are often deeply integrated with their spiritual beliefs, social practices, and everyday life.

Unlike the Western scientific tradition, which is grounded in empirical observation and experimentation, many indigenous knowledge systems are holistic, emphasizing the interconnection between human beings, nature, and the cosmos. For instance, many indigenous cultures view the natural world as a living, interconnected system, where every plant, animal, and element of the environment has intrinsic value and purpose. This worldview often leads to a profound understanding of local ecosystems, sustainable agriculture, and ecological balance, which has been invaluable for preserving biodiversity and responding to environmental challenges.

Ethnosciences challenge the idea that modern, Western science is the only valid form of knowledge. They highlight the importance of cultural diversity in scientific practice and offer alternative ways of thinking about the natural world. For example, indigenous knowledge about medicinal plants and their therapeutic properties has contributed to the development of modern pharmaceuticals. The willow tree, for instance, was a well-known remedy among North American tribes to treat pain, and it was later found to contain salicylic acid, the active ingredient in aspirin.

In recent years, there has been growing recognition of the value of ethnosciences in the broader scientific community. Scholars are increasingly engaging with indigenous knowledge systems, often in collaboration with indigenous communities, to better understand ecosystems, preserve traditional practices, and develop new solutions to environmental problems. However, there is still work to be done to ensure that these knowledge systems are respected, preserved, and integrated into mainstream scientific discourse in an equitable and ethical way.

Vocabulary List

Root Language of origin Meaning Example
ba(s) Greek to step, to walk basis
hol(i/o) Greek whole, entire hologram
trad(it) Latin to hand, to hand over trade
narr(a/o) Latin to tell a story narration
mod(e/o) Latin now, current, at this time modern
intell(i/e) Latin to understand intellect
col/cult Latin to inhabit, to live in cultural
civi(l) Latin related to citizens civic
discipl(e/i) Latin student, learning disciple
tribut(e/a) Latin to gift, to bestow tribute
pan(d/s) Latin to spread expand
rati(o) Latin reason, logic rational
loqu(i/a) Latin to speak, to converse colloquium
cis(e) Latin to cut precise
tens Latin to stretch, be stretched tension
clud/s(e) Latin to close, to shut exclude
vern(a) Latin domestic, native vernacular

Vocabulary Practice

Practice Set A: Each of the following words is derived from a language that’s not Latin or Greek. But using the roots you know, give the Latin or Greek root that best matches.

  1. knowledge (Old English)
  2. pursue (Anglo-Norman French)
  3. thinking (Old English)
  4. old (Germanic / Old English)
  5. whole (Germanic / Old English)
  6. other (Germanic / Old English)
  7. touch (Old French)

Practice Set B: Identify the roots in each of the following words, give their language of origin, and their definitions. Also give their part of speech. Then, following the guidelines in Lesson 4, arrange the definitions of the individual roots to create a literal definition.

  1. tradition
  2. intelligent
  3. interdisciplinary
  4. basics
  5. contribution
  6. vehicle
  7. irrational
  8. loquacious
  9. designation
  10. incision
  11. hypertension
  12. inclusive
  13. ethnoscience
  14. holistic
  15. extensive

Reflection Questions

  1. What are the differences in how you see Greek vs. Latin being used in modern science?
  2. By now, you’ve seen quite a few Greek and Roman mythological figures in various sciences (such as in the names of organisms, elements, or planets). Pick one of these which is named for a Greek or Roman mythological figure (e.g., Jupiter) and rename it for a figure from a different culture’s mythology. Explain why you’ve chosen this name.
  3. What are the benefits and drawbacks to having one or two standard “language(s) of science”? Do you think that English might someday fade out of usage like Latin was?
  4. Many indigenous and non-European cultures rely on oral histories and ways of knowledge that are passed down through the spoken word, rather than the written. What are some things that you’ve learned without reading them (e.g., heard through peers, seen in non-textual media)?
  5. What are some ways that you’ve experienced Eurocentric narratives in other math or science classes you’ve taken?