Lesson 19: Anatomical Naming
- Objectives
- Greek and Latin in Anatomy
- Additional Latin Terminology
- Body Parts
- Vocabulary List
- Vocabulary Practice
- Reflection Questions
Objectives
- Learn how Greek and Latin are used in anatomy
- Translate and interpret Latin in its original form in anatomical contexts
Greek and Latin in Anatomy
It would be all too easy to say that Greek and Latin form the backbone (ha!) of anatomical terminology. While both languages have their usages in medical vocabulary, Latin tends to appear in its original form more often than Greek in anatomical terms. This is because Latin was the language of instruction in medical schools and universities across Europe for centuries, especially during the Renaissance and following the Scientific Revolution. As a result, many of the anatomical terms were directly borrowed from Latin and have retained their original forms (e.g., cranium, femur). Greek tends to appear more frequently in the names of processes, structures, or conditions (e.g., arthritis, gastrointestinal).
This system of naming using Greek and Latin roots is not limited to humans; it extends to the study of animals as well. The same conventions apply when describing animal anatomy, as the use of Latin and Greek allows for a consistent framework that can be used to describe similarities and differences across species. (Most vertebrates, for example, have vertebrae, or a backbone.) However, for simplicity and practicality, anatomical terminology in this lesson will focus primarily on the human body.
Additional Latin Terminology
Latin anatomical terms are usually composed of only adjectives and nouns, as we’ve seen in previous lessons. Adjectives, however, come with an additional twist: there are three degrees, called positive, comparative, and superlative. The positive degree is when the adjective stands on its own without implying any kind of comparison. The comparative degree indicates a comparison between two objects, and the superlative indicates a comparison between three or more objects.
Let’s look at some examples in English:
| Positive | Comparative | Superlative |
|---|---|---|
| happy | happier | happiest |
| green | greener | greenest |
| sharp | sharper | sharpest |
| beautiful | more beautiful | most beautiful |
| complex | more complex | most complex |
From the examples above, we can see that in English, the comparative form is made by attaching -er to the end of an adjective, or using the word more in front. The superlative form is made by attaching -est to the end of an adjective, or using the word most in front.
Latin, similarly, has some formulas that we can use to express the comparative and superlative degrees. The ending -ior/-ius is fixed to the end of comparative adjectives, and the ending -issimus/-issima/-issimum is fixed to the end of superlative adjectives.
Comparative adjectives in Latin are always third-declension, and superlatives are first/second-declension. Using brevis as an example, you would say brevis, brevior, brevissimus for a masculine subject, brevis, brevior, brevissima for a feminine subject, and brevis, brevius, brevissimum for a neuter subject.
The following comparative adjectives appear frequently in anatomy:
| Latin | English |
|---|---|
| superior | upper |
| inferior | lower |
| anterior | in front, forward |
| posterior | in back, behind |
| interior | inside, within |
| exterior | outside |
The two exceptions to the comparative and superlative formulas that we’ll see in this class are maximus and minimus, meaning “largest” and “smallest”, respectively. To say “larger” and “smaller”, we would say major and minor, respectively. (One way to remember these is that your major is your larger concentration, while your minor is your smaller concentration!)
Common Formulas
As mentioned in Lesson 18, while there are (at least) ten forms of each Latin noun, you won’t see many of them in practice. Latin anatomical names follow some fairly regular patterns, most of which involve only nominatives and genitives, often in the singular. Here are some common formulas:
| Formula | How to Translate |
|---|---|
| nom (a.) | <nom (a.)> |
| nom (n.) | <nom (n.)> |
| nom (n.) - gen (n.) | <nom (n.)> of the <gen 9n.> |
| nom (n.) - nom (a.) | <nom (a.)> <nom (n.)> |
| nom (n.) - gen (n.) - gen (a.) | <nom (n.)> of the <gen (a.)> <gen (n.)> |
| nom (n.) - nom (a.) - gen (a.) | <nom (a.)> <nom (n.)> of the <gen (n.)> |
| nom (n.) - nom (a.) - nom (a.) | <nom (a.)> <nom (a.)> <nom (n.)> |
In three-word phrases, the order of words in the same case doesn’t matter. It’s possible to have a nom (n.) - gen (a.) - gen (n.) phrase that would still have the same formula as the third row.
The pattern continues the same way for longer phrases, no matter how many adjectives are added. Here are some additional rules of thumb for Latin anatomical phrases:
- There is always at least one nominative, whether adjective or noun.
- Sometimes there is a genitive noun.
- In order to have an adjective, a phrase must have a noun.
- Mutliple adjectives an apply to the same noun.
Body Parts
Bones
The Latin word for bone is os (genitive ossis, plural ossa), so the Latin names for many bones formally begins with os. For example, the os temporale is the temporal bone, or the bone at your temple. However, in practice, several bones are referred to by their second names, such as the humerus or the femur. Here are some you may know:
| Bone | English translation |
|---|---|
| humerus | upper arm (bone) |
| radius | ray (i.e., inner forearm) |
| ulna | elbow (i.e., outer forearm) |
| scapula | shoulder (i.e., shoulder blades) |
| vertebrae | spine (bone) |
| femur | thigh (bone) |
| coccyx | tailbone |
| sternum | chest (bone) |
| patella | kneecap |
| tibia | shin (bone) |
| fibula | calf (bone) |
| talus | ankle (bone) |
Latin names for bones are usually two words. Typically, they will follow a nominative-genitive pattern with two nouns, or a nominative-nominative pattern with a noun and an adjective. The first nominative is usually os. Here are some examples, with translations:
| Bone | English translation | Formula |
|---|---|---|
| os temporale | temporal bone | nom (n.) - nom (a.) |
| os frontale | frontal bone (front of skull) | nom (n.) - nom (a.) |
| os nasale | nose bone | nom (n.) - nom (a.) |
| os parietalis | parietal bone (side of skull) | nom (n.) - nom (a.) |
| os occipitalis | occipital bone (back of skull) | nom (n.) - nom (a.) |
| os costae | rib bone (lit., bone of the rib) | nom (n.) - gen (n.) |
Muscles
The Latin word for muscle is musculus (genitive musculi). Similar to bones, the Latin names for most muscles formally begin with the word musculus. However, this also drops out in practice. For example, the musculus biceps is better known just as the biceps (a muscle in your upper arm).
Unlike bones, though, most muscle names do not keep the word musculus. As such, you might imagine that the word musculus is secretly at the beginning of any muscle name that you see.
Some muscle names also describe their function and how they move in the body. For example, a compressor is a muscle that presses together or contracts, while an extensor is a muscle that stretches out or extends. (Usually, you can figure out the meanings of these Latin compounds because of their resemblance to words in English. Barring that, you can always check individual roots!)
Latin muscle names often follow a two-word pattern. In nominative-genitive patterns, the first word usually describes the type of muscle (or other distinguishing feature), and the second word usually describes where you would find the muscle. In nominative-nominative patterns, the order is usually reversed. The first word describes where to locate the muscle, while the second word describes a physical characteristic. Note the examples below:
| Muscle name | English translation | Pattern |
|---|---|---|
| pectoralis major | larger pectoral (muscle) | nom (a.) - nom (a.) |
| gluteus maximus | largest glute (muscle) | nom (a.) - nom (a.) |
| fibularis longus | long fibula (muscle) | nom (a.) - nom (a.) |
| tibialis anterior | forward tibia (muscle) | nom (a.) - nom (a.) |
| rectus abdominis | straight (muscle) of the abdomen | nom (a.) - gen (n.) |
| biceps brachii | two-headed (muscle) of the arm | nom (a.) - gen (n.) |
| quadriceps femoris | four-headed (muscle) of the thigh | nom (a.) - gen (n.) |
Organs
Every organ in the human body has a Latin name, but these are rarely used because we already have English words that are easier to use and understand. The Latin names for organs are usually used in Latin phrases, either as a genitive or with an adjective. Here are some commonly used Latin terms for various body parts, along with their genitives. The gender of each noun is marked with (m.) for masculine, (f.) for feminine, and (n.) for neuter.
| Nominative | Genitive | English |
|---|---|---|
| cor | cordis | heart |
| pulmo | pulmonis | lung |
| ren | renis | kidney |
| venter | ventris | stomach |
| oculus | oculi | eye |
| nas | naris | nose |
| cerebrum | cerebri | brain |
| sanguis | sanguinis | blood |
| hepar | hepatis | liver |
| iecur | iecuris | liver |
Latin uses two words for liver. hepar is borrowed from Greek, while iecur is originally Latin.
Vocabulary List
| Root | Language of origin | Meaning | Example |
|---|---|---|---|
| gony | Greek | knee | gonyplasty |
| cheil | Greek | lip | cheiloplasty |
| glott/gloss | Greek | tongue | glossary |
| onych | Greek | nail (of a finger or toe) | onychia |
| my(o) | Greek | muscle | myalgia |
| myel | Greek | marrow, spinal cord | myelitis |
| soma(to) | Greek | body | somatic |
| chol(e) | Greek | bile | cholera |
| phleb | Greek | blood vessel | phlebotomy |
| stom(at) | Greek | mouth | stoma |
| cleid(o) | Greek | collarbone | hypocleidium |
| morb | Latin | disease, sickness | morbid |
| cost | Latin | rib | os costae |
| cox | Latin | hip | coxa |
| genu | Latin | knee | genual |
| crist | Latin | crest | crista |
| frontal(e) | Latin | in front | frontal |
| tempor(a) | Latin | temple (of the head) | temporal |
| ment(um) | Latin | chin | mentum |
| lingu(a) | Latin | tongue | bilingual |
| ven(a) | Latin | vein, blood vessel | venule |
| vas | Latin | blood vessel | vascular |
| ans | Latin | handle, loop | ansiform |
| cortex/cortic(o) | Latin | bark, outer layer | cortical |
| cervix/cervic(o) | Latin | neck | cervical |
| bucc(a) | Latin | mouth | buccal |
| crani(a) | Latin | skull | cranium |
| sen(i) | Latin | old, aged | senior |
Vocabulary Practice
Practice Set A: Identify the roots in each of the following words, give their language of origin, and their definitions. Also give their part of speech. Then, following the guidelines in Lesson 4, arrange the definitions of the individual roots to create a literal definition.
- intercostal
- choleric
- cardiovascular
- linguistics
- epiglottis
- genuflection
- cranial
- psychosomatic
- phlebotomy
- cheiloplasty
- pneumostome
- bicostate
- coxosternum
- sternocleidomastoid
- neocortex
Practice Set B: Give the translation and pattern for each of the following Latin anatomical phrases. (Hint: You will only use nominative and genitive adjectives and nouns!)
- musculus rectus femoris
- morbus coxae senilis
- ansa cervicalis
- orbicularis oculi
- adductor magnus
- linea alba
- flexor digitorum manus
- ansae nervorum spinalium
- extensor carpi radialis longus
- extensor carpi radialis brevis
Reflection Questions
- What Latin or Greek terms have you seen in anatomy before?
- The introduction to this lesson mentions that Greek is more common in the names of diseases and processes, while Latin is more common for body parts. Why do you think this is? Consider the differences in the ways that Greek and Roman medicine were practiced.
- In what ways are the naming of body parts and the naming of organisms, elements, and astronomical objects similar? How are they different?
- For each of the Latin terms for organs, can you determine what declension they are in? How can you tell?